Moses Essays - Book Of Exodus, Moses, Exodus Gods And Kings, Bo

Moses Moses There have been many individuals who could be considered leaders, but some stand out among the others. An example of a superb leader is Moses. Moses is viewed as a righteous man in Gods eyes and is chosen to lead the Hebrews out of oppression in Egypt. Contained in the story of Exodus are many examples of Moses sacrifices and the hardships he endured while freeing the Hebrews. The faith of Moses was tested numerous times throughout the story, and, in some instances, it seemed that Moses had lost faith, however, being the righteous man that he was, he stuck it out until the end. Moses is a pillar of faith for surviving his tests and for being the perfect tool for Gods plans. The Old Testament, model of a great patriarch, is one who possesses faith coupled with voluntary obedience to Gods wishes and gratitude. These things combine to make up Gods standard of moral goodness. If the person obeys Gods laws and meets His standards, the individual may obtain happiness. The ultimate model of a great patriarch is Moses. The book of Exodus, begins with the Egyptians decision to oppress the Hebrews who lived in the land of Egypt for 400 years. (The descendants of Joseph and his brothers) Although Moses was born a Hebrew, Moses grew up in the Pharaohs court and the Hebrews were jealous of him. The Egyptians didnt trust him as well. This is one of the main reasons why Moses was such a great leader. He didnt really have any strong ties to either the Hebrews of the Egyptians. This is why he can be harsh and use force to make the people understand what God wants. He has the guts to order his own people to their death for freedom. Moses was willing to risk his life for his people and one day Moses saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew in the work-yard, and hastily killed the Egyptian with his bare hands. He then fled from Egypt to Midian, and found a wife with whom he had a son. Yet, Moses knew he would not settle down until he returned to Egypt to fulfill A Gods prophecy. Important to Moses development into a great leader was the time he was tending his father-in-laws flock up on the mountain of Horeb. Here, at the mountain of God, he came across a burning bush. Moses was amazed by the phenomenon and God spoke to him through this medium. Moses was commanded to go to the Pharaoh and request that the Hebrews be set free to worship their God. Now, Moses was not well liked by either the Egyptians or the Hebrews at the time, so he was in no position to tell anyone what to do. When Moses, through Aaron, proposes to the Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go free, the Pharaoh gets mad and just makes the workload for the Hebrews more demanding than it ever was before. This made the Pharaoh furious and the Hebrew labor force despised Moses for burdening them with more work. Moses was discouraged because the people he was commanded to free did not want to be freed, and, even if they did, Moses is the last person that they wanted to be freed by. As slaves, the Hebrews accept themselves to be powerless. At this point Moses had to be rather confused. He has no friends to turn to; all he has is a burning bush up on a mountain, and faith. On his conscience are the hardships of an entire people and a huge sense of failure. Moses returns to the bush and says to God, O Lord, why did You bring harm upon this people? Why did You send me? Ever since I came to Pharaoh to speak in Your name, he has dealt worse with this people, and still You have not delivered Your people (Exodus 5:22). This is an example of Moses doubt and confusion about his mission. God supplies Moses with many different tricks, and supernatural powers, yet the first few times Moses went ba ck to Pharaoh, his magicians could match Moses illusions. As a result, the Pharaoh thought nothing of it

Study, Learn, and Read

Study, Learn, and Read Study, Learn, and Read Study, Learn, and Read By Maeve Maddox Some ESL speakers have trouble with these verbs. To study is to apply the mind to the acquisition of knowledge. Books are the first avenue that comes to mind, but as the object of study is the acquisition of knowledge, other means include observation and experiment. Play is a form of study for children. Although the word learn is closely associated with study, the following sentences have completely different meanings: I am studying German. I am learning German. Many a student studies a subject in school without learning it. To read has several meanings. The most common is â€Å"to scan written or printed words and get meaning from them.† One noteworthy usage difference between British and American English is the use of read in reference to postsecondary education. In the U.S., students go to the university â€Å"to study history† or some other subject; in England, they go to university â€Å"to read history.† The idiom â€Å"to read up on† means â€Å"to study.† For example, â€Å"Before you travel to India, you may want to read up a little on the culture.† Idioms with read: to read between the lines: to draw conclusions not apparent from surface appearances. â€Å"She tells them that she cares for them, but when she turned down their last three dinner invitations, I could read between the lines.† read my lips! Ordinarily, this expression is used to emphasize a speaker’s sincerity and resolve: â€Å"Listen carefully!† â€Å"Pay close attention!† â€Å"Take my word for it!† In 1988, the phrase became closely associated with G. H. W. Bush, who said, â€Å"Read my lips: No new Taxes!† when accepting the presidential nomination. Because Bush did raise taxes during his presidency, political writers often use the phrase ironically. to read someone like a book: to understand a person’s character and thoughts by studying outward signs. to read a person’s mind: to guess what a person is thinking or intending to do. to read the Riot Act: The phrase originated in reference to an 18th century Act passed by the British Parliament following several serious riots. The Act authorized local officials to disperse any gathering of more than 12 people who were unlawfully, riotously, and tumultuously assembled together. An official would confront the group and read the part of the act that spelled out the consequences for refusing to obey. Nowadays the expression is used by adults in reference to noisy children: â€Å"Sounds like they’re getting pretty wild in there; you’d better go read them the Riot Act.† Idioms with learn: to learn by heart: to memorize learn by rote: to learn by means of repetition, the way one learns the alphabet, the multiplication tables, and scientific phyla. A learning curve is psychological jargon that has found a place in the general vocabulary. It means â€Å"the rate of a person’s progress in learning a new skill.† The expression derives from is a curve on a graph illustrating the rate of learning by a lab subject. Modern usage distinguishes between learn and teach, but in Shakespeare’s time, learn was used in the sense of â€Å"teach†: The red plague rid you for learning me your language! Caliban, The Tempest I:ii (1611) This use survives in some dialects, but not in standard usage. Fewer idioms with study come to mind: study a face: to look closely at a face, as if to memorize its features. study the options: to consider possible solutions to a problem or course of action. be in a brown study: â€Å"A state of mental abstraction or musing; gloomy meditation. The word brown originally described a color so dark as to be almost black. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:35 Synonyms for â€Å"Look†55 Boxing IdiomsWhat the heck are "learnings"?

The Work and Tools of a Surveyor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Work and Tools of a Surveyor - Essay Example This very well depicts that the area is a hot spot and opening a shop in this locality can be an added benefit. Since the proximity to upper parliament and market square is quite close, there is no doubt about the potentiality of the location. The construction of external walls is of bricks and concrete and roof is of concrete alone. The appeal of the building is unconventional and as a result reflects an element of antiquity to the outsiders. The window frames look fragile and not well maintained with defective glass panes. The interiors of the building was checked thoroughly in order to have an analysis of the defects in construction .This would help in understanding the short comings which could negatively affect the potentiality of the property and can give rise to excessive expenditure in future. Even though some areas were not accessible to be inspected .Apart from roofs to which access was not possible, the inspection took place from basement to second floor. The ladder was used for some areas in the ceilings in the look out for defects. At the time of evaluating the property was not occupied and was semi –furnished with well maintained carpets. The building is not in a very good condition and looks not maintained well. The doors have become weak and flooring needs to be refurbished. Ceilings are moderately in good form and skirting of the wall made of timber need some varnishing. The exterior of the building needs to be painted in order to retain a novelty appearance. The windows frame joints needs some finishing as the joints are visible. The window pane needs to be painted as its is fading and wood is detoriating and ageing. The lintel of the first floor main door is corroding and this can happen to other doors as well. The windows are single glazed and could be changed to double glazed if the expense allow. Some of the wood works are in poor condition and the mastics showing around the frame are shrinking. Bathrooms

Report on Representation of Slavery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Report on Representation of Slavery - Essay Example Baltimore was not a major fighting point during the civil war but played a strategic role because of its position. All troops and movement of men and material need to flow through Maryland to reach the war fronts of the south. Fort McHenry was the prison for the supporters of the secession during this period. However, Fort McHenry played a significant role during the fight with the British in 1812. There is also evidence of Afro-American descendants fighting for America. Fort McHenry and Hampton are about 10 miles from one another. The visit to Hampton which is off the north bound Dulaney Valley Road and into the Hampton lane for about a mile down, is interest kindling and relates the social history and life of the people during that period. Whereas, Fort McHenry relates us to the times of war and power play that makes to the history books. While one is a symbol of life, the other is a symbol of victory over aggression and the victory of equality of human beings. Private William Williams was the first black to get into the exclusive only white US Army in 1812. Fort McHenry represents the day of equality for the first time in the history of US. A run-away slave, was made a private and was paid the regular private bounty of $50 along with private wages of $8 per month. The equality that this action represents in the history of America actually marks the beginning of America, less than fifty years of declared independence of America. Subjugation of weaker men in earlier world was common. Slaves are found all over the world from Africa to America; from the east to the west. This action is one of the earliest major steps taken towards equality of man kind in line. Fort McHenry represents this in their short movie and also later in the picture galleries when art and written information about William Williams is presented for posterity. While this was the case with Fort McHenry, Hampton on the other hand represents the other side of slavery. Human beings were literally put in ghettos which were called living quarters. And men had little or no liberty except to work for their masters under their supervision. The committed working of the African slaves in Hampton was reflected in the well being of their master. "The General's lands are very well cultivatedhis cattle, sheep, horses, etc., of a superior sort, and in much finer condition than many I saw in America. He is very famous for race horses and usually keeps three or four such horses in training, and what enables him to do this is that he owns very extensive iron works, or otherwise he could not." - English Visitor Richard Parkinson, 1805 A display in Hampton read the above message. Now this implied that the workers and slaves in Hampton slogged it out very well and were impressive craftsmen. There were men and women who could make sure that their lands turned fertile and they were also good enough to work on the iron works and turn out the best equipments for the General. While checking with the curator, she also concurred that

A Tour to History Colorado Center Research Paper

A Tour to History Colorado Center - Research Paper Example From this study it is clear that  Ancient Puebbloan people domesticated turkey for a number of reasons. One of the reasons was it was rich source of protein that could replaces the decreasing number of deers who also proved very difficult to hunt and they were also over hunted hence their reduction in population. Archeologists have found remains of turkey in pens together with their gizzards stones, eggshell in large number and these have been collected and brought into o the center.   Within the center you would come across heals damages of turkey preserved in the center and this also support mass hunting of turkey by ancient Puebloan people.  This discussion stresses that  various artifacts such as needles, neck less which shows how creative the first Puebloan of Mesa Verde area in Colorado was in designing their tools from hallow bones which they used in making blankets from turkey feathers. Dust Bowl. This shows how man has learnt how to survive in very challenging enviro nment. The tour to the center also reflected how economical and less demanding it was to keep turkey because they consume approximately half a pound of maize grains daily and some small insects which could be found in the natural environment. This encounter therefore would be very useful to entrepreneurs who don’t have huge capital but are interesting in engaging in farming activities.  Certain cultural orientations may be grounded on straight traditions.

A Critical Analysis Of Techno Change Information Technology Essay

A Critical Analysis Of Techno Change Information Technology Essay This report offers a critical analysis of the article A Techno-cultural Emergence Perspective on the Management of Techno-change written by Stephen Jackson and George Philip. The principal purpose of this analysis is to identify and criticise the original contribution of the authors in the study, to discover any deficiencies in the proposed perspective, to propose any improvements and to look for any future research in this field. A brief overview is provided at the first. Part II, III and IV outline the definition of techno-change, importance of techno-change and techno-cultural emergence perspective. This is followed by the comment on originality and contributions; adopted research method, its appropriateness and limitations; and theoretical argument made by the study in Part V, VI and VII respectively. Key findings and their implications are provided in Part VIII. Finally, Part IX and X provide the deficiencies of the study and some recommendations for future research in this field. I. ABOUT THE ARTICLE The article in press, A techno-cultural perspective on the management of techno-change, published in the International Journal of Information Management in 2010 by Stephen Jackson and George Philip, explores the function of culture in the management of techno-change or technological change applying Cultural Theory originated from Anthropology as a hypothetical lens. The current three foremost viewpoints on organisation culture in relation to the management of technological changes namely technological determinism, cultural determinism and techno-cultural emergence, have been examined in this paper. The innermost precept of this article as proposed by the authors is that first two of the three approaches the technological determinism which pays less importance on the organisational culture and cultural determinism which provides   few thoughts on the technology would not be appropriately thriving in the technological change management arena; rather the authors put emphasis on the techno-cultural emergence approach in the facilitating contours of hierarchism, individualism/market and egalitarianism that promotes an atmosphere which can effectively manage the technological changes. II. WHAT IS TECHNO-CHANGE? The phrase Techno-change relates to the organisational changes for technological drives and encompasses a wide variety of features that are connected to and have effects for the changes contained by the organisations (Harison and Boonstra, 2009). When organisations adopt pristine technology which usually prompts or necessitates focal organizational changes, we can call it as Techno-change or technological change (Nilsson, 2008). The term Techno-change was first conceived by Markus in Technochange Management: Using IT to drive organisational change in 2004 (Markus, 2004) and from then the term techno-change has been widely applied in the technological and project management field along with various organisational circumstances.   TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM: Technological determinism theory presumes that technological changes will drive cultural changes and social structure as well (Chandler, 2000). According to Chandler (2000), technological determinists usually try to account for nearly the whole thing in relation to technology: a perception is termed as technocentrism. CULTURAL DETERMINISM: Cultural determinism theory assumes that only culture determines our emotional and behavioural level. The supporters of cultural determinism view that culture is restricted, permanent, unitary and immobile over time (Jackson and Philip, 2005). III. IMPORTANCE OF TECHNO-CHANGE Now-a-days, techno-change is a critical incident and it is getting highly equal attention from both the profit and non-profit organisations (Harison and Boonstra, 2009). As innovations have been deluging in all aspects of businesses for the last couple of decades, the increasing introduction and implementation of large-scale information systems like the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Relationship Management (CRM) or Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems in business firms as well as higher education providing institutions have become a common phenomena (Chae and Lanzara, 2006; Harison and Boonstra, 2009). Although these wide spread applications of techno-changes, industry data revel that techno-change has high propensity to failure (Chae and Lanzara, 2006). A recent study by the Computer Associates (CA) in 2007 in the UK and Ireland reveals cheap visibility about the importance of IT projects and less management control over the project are costing more than  £256 million in the UK every year and one third of all the projects run-over of their actual budget by 10% 20% (CA, 2007). The KPMG (2005) survey of 600 organisations in twenty-two countries show approximately 50% of the participants experience at least one project failure in 2004 whereas KPMGs 2003 survey reveals 57% of the respondents had one or more IT projects failure in 2002 (KMGP, 2005) The Robbins-Gioia Survey in 2001 also states that 51% ERP implementations are unsuccessful (Basu, 2001). According to IT Cortex (available online: http://www.it-cortex.com/Stat_Failure_Rate.htm), the Conference Board Survey in 2001 also does not show happy results as only 34% ERP implementations are successful, 58% are moderate successful and 8% implementations are totally unsuccessful. The Chaos Report (1995) conducted by the Standish Group shows 31.1% IT projects are cancelled prior to their completion and 52.7% projects over run their original costs by 189%. The money spent on these collapses and overruns simply could be the apex of well-known iceberg. The gone opportunity cost could not be quantifiable but believed to be more than trillions of dollars in the USA only. According to the report, more than $250 billion are spent in the USA every year on nearly 175,000 IT based projects.   The above surveys outcomes substantiate that neglecting techno-change can cost considerable amount of money in terms of wastage and business failure.   IV. IMPORTANCE OF TECHNO-CULTURAL EMERGENCE PERSPECTIVE The authors have proposed to employ and create a new perspective the techno-cultural emergence perspective to manage the techno-change. What are the logic and influences behind this new perspective? According to Yates (2006), this emergent change is unanticipated and could be viewed as an opportunity rather than merely a hazard against the project. Equipped with resources, the actors could underpin and/or make way for the emergent change. The advantages and importance of this perspective is that it recognizes the unavoidability of unforeseen emergent and improvisation and admits those as possible optimistic events rather than a downbeat. As the authority of that project cannot always manage the change over the technology as is planned, they could employ resources to get benefit of the emergent development. The techno-cultural emergence perspective also critically examines the intricate connections among social, technical and interpretative issues that continuously put pressure on organisational contexts (Jackson and Philip, 2005). In their earlier paper which was published in 2005, these two authors argued that the techno-cultural emergence perspective incorporates human, social, political factors and the processes of techno-change that are ignored by the other two perspectives. V. ORIGINIALITY AND CONTRIBUTIONS Hereby the critique report has made an attempt to evaluate the originality of the study by comparing other researchers contributions and studies. From the study it is quite apparent that the authors have followed the central theme of Cultural Theory proposed by Douglas (1970). Lots of studies and researches have been conducted in both technological determinism and cultural determinism and it seems none of the approaches are quite successful in the management of techno-change. The third approach, the techno-cultural emergence, which incorporates both the technology and organisations culture, works in both ways, focuses on the emergency and approaches in the incremental line for the change, has got very little attention and understanding from the researchers. The authors made an attempt to solve this problem incorporating Cultural Theorys three cosmologies enabling forms (hierarchism, egalitarianism and individualism/market) in the techno-cultural emergence perspective. As organisation s culture is complex, ambiguous and authoritative in nature (Heilpern and Nadler, 1992), it has become difficult to implement techno-change easily and the authors have argued that enabling forms of hierarchism (fosters visionary leadership and coordination), egalitarianism (fosters teamwork, mutual confidence and information sharing) and individualism/market (fosters imagination, motivation and novelty) will be successful in the techno-change management. The authors have made significant novel contribution by proposing the enabling forms of Cultural Theorys three mechanisms for the effective management of techno-change. Other researchers also mention about these three enabling forms of Cultural Theory for intranet, development of culture and inter-firm relations but none of them have proposed for the total management of techno-change by these three enabling forms. For example, Ruppel and Harrington (2001) mention that flexibility and novelty (individualism/market); faith and interest for colleagues (egalitarianism); and strategies and knowledge management (hierarchism) will optimize intranet implementation (techno-change). Hendriks (1999) argues the elimination of fatalism for the development of culture in the organisations. Adler (2001) also shows three enabling mechanisms of Cultural Theory market/price, hierarchy/authority, and community/trust will improve inter-organisations relationship. VI. RESEARCH METHOD, APPROPRIATENESS AND LIMITATIONS The authors have implemented Case Study and Multiple Methods, a part of Qualitative research method, for proposing the techno-change management by techno-cultural emergence perspective in the facilitating modes of hierarchism, egalitarianism and individualism/market.   According to Yin (1994, p 20), a case study research should have the following components: Æ’ËÅ"   Development of research questions Æ’ËÅ"   Development of propositions, if any Æ’ËÅ"   Analysis Æ’ËÅ"   The rationale connecting the data to the propositions Æ’ËÅ"   The decisive factors for interpreting the findings. The main research question was how does Cultural Theory offer a novel insight for better consideration of techno-change and its successful management? Beside this, the authors raised another question which perspective(s)/cosmology(ies) would be suitable for proper management of techno-change. The authors developed a fourth proposition. The authors collected coded, constructed theories and conducted analysis through the use of multiple methods and software package (HyperResearch2.6).  Ã‚   As technological determinism (Case study A) and cultural determinism (Case study B) did not achieve the expected changes; were unsuccessful in context of change outcomes; did not respond to the unanticipated improvisations to the technology and did not address properly to the unanticipated cultural issues arose from the techno-changes as opposed to the techno-cultural determinism (Case study C), the authors built their rationale for the fourth proposition on the basis of these comparisons. The decisive factors were enabling forms of Cultural Theory, namely hierarchism, egalitarianism, and individual/market as proposed by Douglas (1970) for successful management of techno-change. Stake (1995) and Yin (1994) recognized six bases for substantiation in the case study research method as illustrated in Tellis (1997) and these are: a.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Documents (internal documents were analysed) b.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Archival records (company literature were analysed) c.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Interviews (total 46 interviews were conducted) d.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Direct inspection (Golds [1969] method was applied) e.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Users inspection (Golds [1969] method was followed) f.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Physical artefacts (company blueprints were analysed) The above discussion confirms the appropriateness of Case Study research method for this study. Overall, this type of research method has proved well-matched with the proposal as it provides the end to end analysis of the problem discussed and other researchers like Myers (1997) also supported case study research method in the IS field. However, there could be some limitations also recognised in this study. It seems the authors have applied Grounded Theory (Myers, 1997) which examined the initial evolution of cultural issues in the three different cases. A stage approach applying longitudinal or ethnographic method could be more useful in this type of research as both the methods examine the events and proceedings at every stage of techno-change life-cycle. As the project implementation periods were very lengthy in all the three cases, biasness of the participants could be a limitation in this study, which provided difficulties for the interviewees to recall the experiences throughout the project implementation period. Other researchers such as Orlikowski (1991) and Preston (1991) also support the use of ethnographic method in the IS field as illustrated in Myers (1997). VII. THEORETICAL ARGUMENT The authors proposed a techno-cultural emergence perspective to understand techno-change management, moving away from technological and cultural deterministic views of change, through the enabling forms of Cultural Theory proposed by Douglas (1970). According to Cultural Theory, individuals social situation can be identified by two principal dimensions grid and group, ultimately produce four means of life (cosmology). The cosmologies are: fatalism, hierarchism, individualism/market and egalitarianism. Each way of life possesses facilitating/enabling and or constraining/impeding characteristics. Fatalism produces apathy and fear, thus, it is regarded as constraining form in the techno-change management. The enabling form of hierarchism inspires leadership and coordination; individualism/market inspires creativity, motivation and inventiveness; and egalitarianism inspires teamwork, confidence and information sharing. The authors in this study make a theoretical argument that because o f technological determinisms negligence in organisational culture and cultural determinisms negligence in technology, these three cosmologies enabling forms will lead to successful management of techno-change. The authors claim that change should be viewed as continuous and emergent rather than planned and managers should take their endeavour to lessen constraining cultural attributes and construct such environment that will promote the enabling forms and as a result techno-change management can be done successfully. No research substantiation for this claim is clearly apparent in the study. VIII. THE KEY FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS Several important findings can be obtained from this study.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A new perspective: Management should not follow top-down technological or cultural driven method for the successful implementation and management of techno-change. As an alternative, the authors proposed an incremental/evolutionary style along with continuous adjustments and improvements in culture and technology will lead successful techno-change management. Stakeholders in techno-change should keep in mind that change is an ongoing process and it is made up of uncertain, questionable and unavoidable issues of both the technology and culture. In terms of implications, this new strategy might be quite successful as both the technological and cultural determinism approaches have proved unsuccessful in the techno-change. This strategy might get higher success rate in the successful implementation of ERP which aims to get visibility on inventories around the world or placing one face to the customer (Markus, 2004, p 14), on BPR (Business Process Redesign) or on various innovative and contemporary measurements and amendments in organisation structures. This strategy might be implemented in Supply Chain Management (SCM) as well which aims to address on the different productions and deliveries schedules, greater information sharing within the associated organisations and the ways of procurements.   Ã‚ ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More attention on techno-change process: Much concentration is needed in the field of software vendor and contract; training and encouragement of participation of the users; data transfer; interface development, system testing and coverage. In terms of implications, addressing these issues during the techno-change management process is vital. According to Markus (2004), although the management might know the need of a new system but might not be aware of huge variations between systems of the similar type recommended by various software vendors as well as the amount of flexibility around the softwares applications. She argues this superior awareness of the options will lead to successful techno-change. Sometimes, the management might decide to save money on software testing which can result buggy software, or on training of users which could result incompetent users who commit higher mistakes.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cultural issues: Organisations cultural issues must not be overlooked during the techno-change process. Constricting cultural cosmology must be minimised whereas facilitating cosmologies must be promoted within the organisations culture. Markus (2004) argues that every techno-change brings out probable provocation from human reaction which we term as resistance to change and any difference between the techno-change and organisations culture brings out conflict and chips in to resistance. She claims, because of their view to the devotion to the patients care, doctors and nurses usually resent those techno-changes which bring greater organizational competences. Individuals who like to work on their own might resent to the techno-changes which provide greater teamwork facilities. Markus (2004) also illustrates two national cultural misfits in the techno-change as well because of lacking in map culture, geographical information system (GIS) is not greatly used in India whereas ERP system is rarely used in China because managers have little confidence in their subordinates regarding the access in the business data. So managers should promote coordination among users (hierarchism); teamwork and confidence among users (ega litarianism); and inventiveness, motivation and creativity (individualism/market) whereas managers should try to minimise any apathy and fear to techno-change (fatalism). IX. DEFECIENCIES IN THE STUDY 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The authors proposed perspective is totally based on Douglass (1970) Cultural Theory which is not away from criticisms as well. According to Caulkins (1999), the first drawback is the outline of this theory has not been done through comprehensive cross-cultural testing. He also proposed for further testing of this group-grid framework. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚   From the study, it appears techno-change and IT projects are the same although there is substantial difference in between these two processes. According to Markus (2004) IT projects aim to improve technical performances whereas techno-change heavily affects the users such as people, process and organisation performance. She also argues that although both IT projects and techno-changes heavily rely on IT but IT projects bring organisations success through improved functionality, reliability and cost of technology with no considerable amendments in the organisations operations whereas techno-changes generally improve organisations outcome measurements considerably like the process efficiency and cycle time. The authors did not distinguish techno-changes and IT projects in the study. 3.  Ã‚   There is no cross-case analysis for the same private sector enterprises. For example, the authors could select a retail business to compare with the business/technology solution provider. A further cross-case analysis could be done for public sector by including and analysing a health care service provider and a government organisation. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Case study research method is a multi-perspective analysis method (Tellis, 1997) which means the study does not count just the voice and perspectives of the actors but also needs to consider various relevant groups of actors and the relations among them. The cases in this study only considered actors within the organisations but ignored the external stake-holders and users like the students, customers and investors. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The proposition is not tested on different sectors like the NGOs and not-for-profit organisations. 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The proposition is not tested on different countries culture as well. We cant get any idea in which country/location this study was conducted. Different countries have different cultures and cultures vary for the locations as well, the disclosure of location/country of the study would provide some idea about the perception and successful management of techno-change in the same geographic location. 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insufficient information can lead inappropriate implications. For example, we can find none of the cases in this study reveal the actual cost or the total cost of the techno-change. As cost is a major consideration for implementing IS project or techno-change, the information on cost for the organisations could provide insight for other similar types of organisations. 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Social, economic and environmental factors have not been analysed in the cases. None of the cases shows the social advantages, benefits or disadvantages of the employees/users for a techno-change. Economic benefits of the organisations have not been discussed. Every techno-change has impacts on its surrounding environment and that has not been mentioned anywhere in the study. A classic example was illustrated by Markus (2004) for Cigna. The firm launched its new CRM for the cost of $1 billion which ultimately laid off its customer service personnel department but the new system at the end could not handle 3.5 million customers complaints and eventually Cignas share price fell significantly. 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The authors have not outlined how to implement emergence perspective throughout the organisations and the factors are needed to be considered while implementing it. The authors also have not mentioned how the organisations can create, support, maintain and promote the enabling forms and how organisations can avoid and discourage the constraining form.   11. The authors have not critically analysed the role of IT specialists and other internal staff specialists like the industrial engineering and strategic planners as they play vital roles in the implementation of techno-change (Markus, 2004). Besides the performances of organisational managers, internal and external change consultants and technology performances have not critically analysed in the study. The techno-change life cycle chartering, the IT project, start-up and shakedown (Markus, 2004) of the described three cases has not been properly stated as well. 12. According to the authors, an individuals membership in the cosmologies is not fixed or permanent and it is dynamic in nature. Our concern is possessing three cosmologies at the same time for an individual cannot it create confusion, conflict and overlapping situations in the individuals which might impede the process of techno-change? X. RECOMMENDATIONS Action Research could be applied instead of Case Study research method as it is now attracting more attention for researchers (Myers, 1997). Although action research is generally ignored in information systems aside from some notable experiments, for example, Checkland (1991) as illustrated in Myers (1997). Ethnographic research could be applied as it puts emphasis on social and cultural context. As ethnographic research encompasses a greater area including the study of the development of IS to the study features of IT management, multiple perspectives can be incorporated and has widely been used in the study of information systems (Myers, 1997), this type of research would be more accurate for the investigation and management of techno-change. Cross-case analysis can be applied. This type of technique examines pairs of cases, categorizes resemblances and dissimilarities in each pair which will lead to a certain type of pattern which may provide specific support or evidence in the case studies (Tellis, 1997). Although this study compared only one pair of public enterprises, it ignored other cross-case analysis in the private sector. Time and distance effects should be reduced as both of them affect the techno-change management (Markus, 2004). If we look at the Case B where TI/IS implementation time was 5 years (2001 2006) whereas Case A and C both took 2 years. This long period of implementation time could affect the users and members of IT/IS adversely where they may feel distant from the organisations and the ongoing operations of the organisations which might put question on the success of the techno-change. XI. REFERENCES Adler, P. S., 2001, Market, Hierarchy, and Trust: The Knowledge Economy and the Future of Capitalism, Organization Science, Volume 12, No. 2, Available online: http://orgsci.journal.informs.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/2/215 Basu, I., 2001, ERP implementation failures and the Philosophers Stone, Available online: http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20071105/management04.shtml Caulkins, D., 1999, Is Mary Douglass Grid/Group Analysis Useful for Cross-Cultural Research? Cross-Cultural Research, Volume 33, No. 1, pp 108-128, Available online: http://ccr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/33/1/108 Chae, B. and Lanzara, G. F., 2006, Self-destructive dynamics in large-scale techno-change and some ways of counteracting it, Information Technology People, Volume 19, No. 1, pp 74 97. Available online: www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-3848.htm Chandler, D., 2000, Technological or Media Determinism, Available online: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/tecdet/tdet03.html Harison, E. and Boonstra, A., 2009, Essential competencies for technochange management: Towards an assessment model, International Journal of Information Management, Volume 29, Issue 4, pp 283 294, Available online: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science Heilpern, J. And Nadler, D., 1992, Implementing TQM: A Process of Cultural Change, Organisational Architecture, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hendriks, F, 1999, The Post-industrializing City: Political Perspectives and Cultural Biases, GeoJournal, Volume 47, Number 3, Available online: http://www.springerlink.com/content/pmtatt1umn2cej8t/ Jackson, S. and Philip, G., 2005, Organisational Culture and the Management of Technological Change: A Theoretical Perspective, Available online: http://is2.lse.ac.uk/asp/aspecis/20050109.pdf KPMG, 2005, Information Risk Management, Global IT Project Management Survey: How committed are you? Available online:   http://us.kpmg.com/Rutus_Prod/Documents/12/ITProjectAdvisorySurveyReport.pdf Markus, M. L., 2004, Technochange management: using IT to drive organizational change, Journal of Information Technology, Volume 19, pp 4 20, JIT Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Myers, M., 1997, Qualitative Research in Information Systems, Available online: C:Documents and SettingsuserDesktopQualitative Research in Information Systems.htm Nilsson, A., 2008, Management of Technochange in an Interorganizational e-Government Project, Proceedings of the 41st Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Available online: http://www.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/HICSS.2008.240 Ruppel, C.P. and Harrington, S. J., 2001, Sharing Knowledge Through Intranets: A Study of Organisational Culture and Intranet Implementation, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Volume 44, Issue 1, pp 37 52 Tellis, W., 1997, Introduction to Case Study, Available online: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html The Standish Group Report: Chaos, 1995, Available online: http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/docs/chaos-report.pdf The CA, 2007, Press Releases, Available online: http://www.ca.com/gb/press/release.aspx?cid=155480 Yates, J., 2006, Planned, Emergent and Opportunistic Change, Available online: http://icd.si.umich.edu/~cknobel/?q=node/41 Yin, R., 1994, Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Second Edition, Beverly Hills, California, Sage Publication.

How Private Must an Objectionably Private Language Be? :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

How Private Must an Objectionably Private Language Be? ABSTRACT: Some philosophers, taking their cue from Philosophical Investigations (PI) 243-315, suppose that a private language is objectionable only when its terms refer to Cartesian mental events. Others (notably Kripke) have focused on PI 201 and the surrounding remarks about rule following, and have explicated the notion of an objectionable private language as (roughly) that of a language used by just one isolated individual unsupported at any time by any source of external or community correction and approval. I attempt to defend Kripke's account against some objections proffered by Simon Blackburn. Blackburn supposes that individuals are no worse off than communities with respect to the difficulties raised by Kripke, and argues that the "paradox" of PI 201 can be avoided by a proper understanding of extended dispositions, and by grasping the possibility of private practices. But Blackburn misconstrues what it is to go on in the "same" way in following a rule, and ignores the plac e of constitutive rules in practices. Some philosophers, taking their cue from Philosophical Investigations (PI) 243 - 315, suppose that a private language is objectionable only when its terms refer to Cartesian mental events. In this "strong" sense private languages are very private indeed. Others (notably Kripke, 1982) have focused on PI 201 and the surrounding remarks about rule following, and have explicated the notion of an objectionably private language as (roughly) that of a language used by just one isolated individual unsupported at any time by any source of external or community correction and approval. I think of this as a "weaker" sense of 'private language.' In sec. 1 I attempt to defend the "Kripke - Wittgenstein" (henceforth 'KW') version of the private language argument against some objections proffered by Simon Blackburn. KW takes languages which are private in the weaker sense to be objectionable, and claims that the later discussion (PI 243 - 315) deals with a "special case" falling under the more general discussion of rule following in earlier sections. In section II I briefly consider some possible objections from Wittgenstein himself to my defense of Kripke. I "This was our paradox: no course of action could be determined by a rule, because every course of action can be made out to accord with the rule"(PI 201). According to KW the reason any course of action could accord with the rule is that there is no fact about an individual to which he can point in justifying going on one way (in the application of a word, continuation of a number series, etc.